History of Iran

Archaeological evidences and modern researches in the history of Iran show that from 100,000 B.C., various ethnic groups with similar cultures lived on the Iranian Plateau. But very little has been known about these cultures until the Aryan migration about 90,000 years later. Nonetheless, archaeological discoveries have shown that the people, who lived in that area before the Aryans, were people of peace-loving, agricultural, and artistic nature.

In order to make it easier to learn about the history of Iran and to be able to have a brief idea of Iranian history, Iran Safar present this historical information in chronological order.

Introduction to Iran’s History

Linguistically, Iran means the land of Aryans, the eastern branch of Indo-Europeans. A group of Aryans (or Indo-Iranians) who migrated to the Iranian plateau around 2000 BCE from Central Asia, are thought to be the direct ancestors of modern Iranians. This has encouraged many historians to start the history of Iran from the Aryan migrations or the establishment of the first Aryan political power, the Achaemenid Empire. At the same time, it is true that long before the influx of Aryans into Iran, different peoples with established civilizations and kingdoms inhabited the country. These dynasties that deteriorated before the arrival of the Aryans or were defeated by them had an extensive system of international trade and relations with other civilizations of their time, as far west as Egypt and maybe Southern Europe and to China in the east.

In 6th century BC Cyrus the Great founded the Persian Empire, which was destroyed in 330 BC by Alexander the Great. In the following centuries, Persia was ruled by Greeks, Parthians, and Sasanian Empire until the Arab invasion in the middle 7th century when the ancient Persian religion of Zoroastrianism gave way to Islam. Four centuries later, in the 11th century, The Seljuk Turks arrived, followed by the Mongols under Genghis Khan and his grandson Hulagu Khan in the 13th century and Tamerlane (Timur) in the 14th century. Another Turkish dynasty from Azerbaijan region, called Safavid Empire, took control in the 16th century. Safavids belonged to a Sufi religious order and made Shiite Islam the official religion of Iran, undertaking a major conversion campaign of Iranian Muslims. The Safavid dynasty reached its height during the reign of Shah Abbas I (1587-I629). It was during his reign that Persia once again came to be known in Europe as a superpower, because it was the greatest opponent of the Ottomans, and their wars saved Europe, the Ottomans being too occupied on the east fighting Iran to make headway in the west. In 18th-19th century under Qajar dynasty, centuries Iran fall under the increasing pressure of European nations, particularly the Russian Empire and the Great Britain. The discovery of oil in early 1900s intensified the rivalry of the Great Britain and Russia for power over the nation. After the first world war Iran was admitted to the United Nations as an original member. In 1921 Reza Khan, an army officer, established a military dictatorship. He was subsequently elected hereditary Shah, thus ending the Qajar dynasty and founding the new Pahlavi dynasty.

Medes

708 – 550 BC

The Medes were an ethnic group of Aryan descent who settled in the western part of the Iranian plateau. The land of the Medes included the western part of the Iranian plateau. The land of Azerbaijan in the northwest of the Iranian plateau was known as Little Media and the rest of the Zagros Mountains region was known as Great Media. The capital of the Medes was ancient Hegmataneh – Present Hamadan. Deioces founded the Median Empire. The exact date of the era of Deioces’ rule is not clear and probably covered most of the first half of the seventh century BC. According to Herodotus, Deioces governed for 53 years.
The Assyrian kingdom, considered the most ruthless power at the time, fell to the Medes. Medes were able to establish the first state in the history of Iran in the late 8th century BC.

The Mede’s government was abolished by Cyrus the Great in around 550 BC, and the Median rule passed to the Persians.

The Achaemenid Persian Empire

550-330 BC

The Achaemenid empire was the largest that the ancient world had seen, extending from Anatolia (current Turkey) and Egypt across western Asia to northern India and Central Asia. The foundation of Achaemenids began in 550 B.C., when King Astyages of Media, who dominated much of Iran and eastern Anatolia, was defeated by his southern neighbor (in a word, his grand son) Cyrus II, a Persia ruler (r. 559–530 B.C.). This upset the balance of power in the Near East. The Lydians of western Anatolia and The Babylonian Empire who controlled Mesopotamia and the eastern Mediterranean territories were later conquered by Cyrus the great.

In 539 B.C. Cyrus entered Babylon and presented himself as a traditional Mesopotamian monarch, restoring temples and releasing political prisoners. The one western power that remained unconquered in Cyrus’ lightning campaigns was Egypt. This task was left to his eldest son and crown prince Cambyses to rout the Egyptian forces in the eastern Nile Delta in 525 B.C. After a ten-day siege, Egypt’s ancient capital Memphis fell to the Persians.

A crisis at court forced Cambyses to return to Persia but he died mysteriously en-route and his commander in chief Darius was crowned as the new king (r. 522–486 BC). Under Darius the great, the empire was stabilized, with roads for communication and a system of governors (satraps) established. He added northwestern India to the Achaemenid realm and initiated two major building projects: the construction of royal buildings at Susa and the creation of the new dynastic center of Persepolis, the buildings of which were decorated by Darius and his successors with stone reliefs and carvings. These show tributaries from different parts of the empire processing toward the enthroned king or conveying the king’s throne. The impression is of a harmonious empire supported by its numerous peoples. Darius also consolidated Persia’s western conquests in the Aegean. However, in 498 BC, the eastern Greek Ionian cities, supported in part by Athens, revolted. It took the Persians four years to crush the rebellion, although an attack against mainland Greece was repulsed at Marathon in 490 BC Darius’ son Xerxes (r. 486–465 BC) attempted to force the mainland Greeks to acknowledge Persian power, but Sparta and Athens refused to give way. Xerxes led his sea and land forces against Greece in 480 BC, defeating the Spartans at the battle of Thermopylae and sacking Athens. However, the Greeks won a victory against the Persian navy in the straits of Salamis in 479 BC. It is possible that at this point a serious revolt broke out in the strategically crucial province of Babylonia. Xerxes quickly left Greece and successfully crushed the Babylonian rebellion. However, the Persian army he left behind was defeated by the Greeks at the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC Much of our evidence for Persian history is dependent on contemporary Greek sources and later classical writers, whose main focus is the relations between Persia and the Greek states, as well as tales of Persian court intrigues, moral decadence, and unrestrained luxury. From these we learn that Xerxes was assassinated and was succeeded by one of his sons, who took the name Artaxerxes I (r. 465–424 BC). During his reign, revolts in Egypt were crushed and garrisons established in the Levant. The empire remained largely intact under Darius II (r. 423–405 BC), but Egypt claimed independence during the reign of Artaxerxes II (r. 405–359 BC). Although Artaxerxes II had the longest reign of all the Persian kings, we know very little about him. Writing in the early second century AD., Plutarch describes him as a sympathetic ruler and courageous warrior. With his successor, Artaxerxes III (r. 358–338 BC), Egypt was reconquered, but the king was assassinated and his son was crowned as Artaxerxes IV (r. 338–336 BC). He, too, was murdered and replaced by Darius III (r. 336–330 BC), a second cousin, who faced the army of Alexander the Great. Ultimately Darius III was murdered by one of his own generals, and Alexander claimed the Persian Empire.

Gate of all nations, Persepolis, Iran

Also Read – Mesopotamia – History, civilizations, timeline & Facts

Seleucid Empire

312 – 63 BC

After Alexander‘s death (323 BC), his conquered regions were divided among his generals, and most of his Asian conquests, of which Iran was the core, reached Seleucus I. Thus Iran came under the rule of the Seleucids (330-250 BC). Seleucids ruled over large parts of western Iran for eighty years, but there was almost no peace in their territory. After a while, the Parthians expanded their influence and finally they were able to destroy the Seleucids.

Alexander of Macedonia, in battle against Darius III

Seleucus I Nicator

Having previously served as an infantry general under Alexander the Great, Seleucus I eventually assumed the title of basileus (king) and established the Seleucid Empire. This was of the major powers of the Hellenistic world, which controlled most of Asia Minor, Syria, Mesopotamia, and the Iranian Plateau until overcome by Parthian Empire in Iran and by the Roman Republic in the western territories in the late second and early first centuries BC.

Seleucus I statue, History of Iran

Parthian Empire

247 BC – 224 AD

The Parthian Empire, also known as the Arsacid Empire, was one of the most powerful Iranian political and cultural power in the history of Iran, ruling from 247 BC to 224 AD. Its latter name comes from its founder, Arsaces I, who led the Parni tribe in conquering the region of Parthia in Iran’s northeast, then a province under a Seleucid governor called Andragoras, in rebellion against the Seleucid Empire. Later, Mithridates I (r. c. 171–132 BC) expanded the boundaries by seizing Media and Mesopotamia from the Seleucids. At its height, the Parthian Empire stretched from the northern reaches of the Euphrates, in what is now central-eastern Turkey, to present-day Afghanistan and western Pakistan. The empire, located on the Silk Road trade route between the Roman Empire in the Mediterranean Basin and the Han dynasty of China, became a center of trade and commerce.

The Parthians valued the Greek civilization that had emerged in Iran during the Seleucid period. Some Parthian kings were well acquainted with Greek literature, and some Greek games were performed at the court of the Parthian kings. At that time, there was a parliament called Mahestan, which itself consisted of two parliaments, one was the aristocratic parliament and the other was the religious parliament of the Zoroastrian priests, which had a consultative aspect and did not have much influence in affairs.

Sasanian Empire

224–651

The name “Sasanians” is derived from a Persian priest named Sasan, the ancestor of the dynasty. Sasan’s grandson Ardashir I defeated the last Parthian king Artabanus IV in 226. He took Ctesiphon, the capital of the Parthian empire and ended Parthian dynasty, Ardashir accepted the title of “king of kings”, which had until then been used by the Parthian kings and – centuries before – the Achaemenid rulers of Persia.

In Sassanian rock reliefs, such as those at Naqsh-e Rostam, we often see investiture scenes. In these carvings, Ahura Mazda, the supreme god, is shown on horseback, handing power to a king.

The Sassanian kings, known as Mazda-worshiping rulers, strongly supported Zoroastrianism. They granted many privileges to the Magians, Zoroastrian religious specialists. The Magians played a key role in the king’s inauguration ceremony in Ctesiphon. They also served as judges and tax collectors, gaining significant political power.

During this time, Zoroastrian fire temples flourished across the empire. These temples, where the sacred fire burned continuously, were centers of worship and authority. The royal support for Zoroastrianism helped strengthen its influence in Sassanian society.

As a consequence of this religious ideology, there was little room for alternative ideas. Christians were persecuted, and the prophet Mani (216-276), who had tried to combine Christianity, Buddhism, and Zoroastrianism, was crucified.

The conflict with Rome, which had started in 231 with some fighting on the Euphrates, escalated under Ardashir’s son and successor Shapur I (r.241-272). According to Roman sources, he made territorial claims: he wanted to restore the Achaemenid Empire and demanded all Roman territories in Asia, a claim that was implied in his title “king of Iran and non-Iran”.

Nevertheless, to reach Nisibis, Shapur raided large parts of the Roman East. When he invaded Syria and looted Antioch, a Roman counterattack was inevitable. The emperor Gordian III invaded Mesopotamia and was at first successful, but was killed in action during a battle near Ctesiphon (244). His successor, Philip the Arab, was forced to conclude a shameful peace treaty, and with some justification, Shapur claimed to have put Philip on the Roman throne. Roman POWs were forced to build the city of Bishapur, where a rock relief commemorated his triumph.

The next phase of the war was even more disastrous to the Romans. Their emperor Valerian was not just defeated, he was even captured (260). The humiliation, shown on rock reliefs at Bishapur and at Naqsh-e Rostam, could not be more complete. However, under the emperors Odaenathus (r.261-267), Carus (r.282-283), and Diocletian (r.284-305), the Romans restored their fortunes and in 298, a peace treaty was concluded in which the Persians had to give up territories in northern Mesopotamia.

Shapur also attacked the Kushans, who ruled the region known as Gandara, the valley of the river Kabul. The Persians took their capital Pishawar and deposed the ruling dynasty. A precious religious object, Buddha’s begging bowl, was taken to Persia.

King Shapur II (r.309-379) attacked the Roman possessions in Mesopotamia, and defeated and killed the Roman emperor Julianus Apostata who had come to punish the attacker .The Romans were forced to give up the conquests of 298.

Like his namesake, Shapur II attacked the Kushan kingdom, which he overthrew. The sphere of influence of the Sasanian Empire now reached to the borders of China. Shapur also invaded Arabia. Other enemies were the White Huns, who invaded the Sasanian empire during the fifth century.

What is true, however, is that several religious groups coexisted more or less peacefully. The main exception is a religious jacquerie in Iran that is called Mazdakism. Its adherents had several ideas that remind us of pre-Leninist communism. King Khosrow I “the deathless soul” suppressed it in 530s, and its adherents may have fled to Arabia.

The final struggle of the East Roman Empire – now called Byzantine Empire – and Persia started under Khosrow II “the victorious” (r.590-628). Again, the Sasanians were the aggressor. The Byzantines were weakened, because Italy had been invaded by the Langobards, the Slavs were taking hold of the Balkans, and Andalusia was lost to the Visigoths. It was the perfect moment to attack the Byzantine empire, and Khosrow acted accordingly. His armies ravaged the cities of Syria and sacked Jerusalem in 614. (The Jews welcomed the Persians, because the Christians had often persecuted them.) One of the objects the Persians took away was the relic of the True Cross.

Khosrow’s armies went on to invade Egypt – Alexandria was captured in 619 – and in 626, their advance-guards paused only a mile from Constantinople. The Persians even raided Cyprus and occupied Rhodes. It seemed as if the Achaemenid Empire was restored, and Khosrow ordered the making of brilliant rock reliefs at Taq-e Bustan.

However, the Byzantine emperor Heraclius was to prove a match for Khosrow. In 627, he invaded Assyria and Mesopotamia. His campaign was extremely successful: he did not even return to his own empire during the winter, but stayed far behind the enemy lines. The Persian army mutinied and Khosrow was murdered (628). His successor Ardašir IV made peace and the relic of the True Cross was restored to Jerusalem.

Heraclius’ victory meant the end of Persia. There were four Sasanian kings in four years, and because there was no real authority, the Arabs – Muslims – were able to defeat the Persians, who were still Zoroastrians. The last Persian king was Yazdgerd III, whose reign began in 632. In 636, the Arabs took Ctesiphon, in 641, they invaded Iran (battle of Nehavand), and ten years later, the last Sasanian king died as a fugitive.

Victory of Shapur Sasainid over Romans, Carvied at Naqsh-e Rostam, Iran Shapur’s victory over Byzantines, Naqsh-e Rostam

Also Read : Sassanid Archaeological Landscape of Fars

The Arab Conquest of Iran (633–651 CE)

The Arab conquest of Iran took place between 633 and 651 CE, leading to the fall of the Sasanian Empire and the spread of Islam in Persia. The conquest began with early raids into Persian territory while the Sasanian Empire was weakened by its long wars with the Byzantine Empire. In 636 CE, the decisive Battle of al-Qadisiyyah saw the Arab army, led by Sa’d ibn Abi Waqqas, defeat the Sasanian forces under Rostam Farrokhzad. This marked a turning point, leading to the capture of Ctesiphon, the Sasanian capital, in 637 CE. With the fall of Ctesiphon, the Arabs gained control over central Persia. In 642 CE, the Battle of Nahavand, known as the “Victory of Victories,” further weakened the Sasanians, and resistance crumbled. By 651 CE, the last Sasanian king, Yazdegerd III, fled to the eastern provinces but was eventually killed in Merv, marking the complete Arab takeover of Iran. The conquest led to the gradual Islamization of Persia, transforming its culture, language, and administration, though Persian identity and traditions remained influential in the Islamic world.

The Arab Rule

After the establishment of Islam in Iran, which occurred as a result of the victory of the Muslim Arabs over the Sassanids and their conquest of Iran, many changes in the social, religious and political spheres took place in the history of Iran.

Muslim domination of Iran was not easy. The cities soon accepted Muslim rule, but the countryside simply did not submit to their rule. The eastern parts of Iran, as well as Tabarestan and Gilan, were later occupied by the Muslims. They had to conquer a place many times.

Dissatisfied with the class discrimination in their country, the Iranians embraced Islam and sought to spread it, but they never hid their opposition to Umayyad and Abbasid rule in Iran, and formed independent movements that formed Governments such as Taherians (881-826 AD) and Saffarids (866-903 AD) can be considered as their results.

Seljuk Empire

1037–1194

The Seljuk Empire (also Seljuqs or Seldjuks) , was a high medieval Turko-Persian Sunni Muslim empire. The Seljuks were a group of nomadic Turkish warriors from the Qiniq branch of Oghuz Turks from central Asia who established themselves in the Middle East during the 11th Century as guardians of the declining Abbasid caliphate. After 1037, they founded the great Seljuk Sultanate; an empire centered in Baghdad and including Iran, َAfghanistan, Iraq, and Syria.

At the time of its greatest extent, the Seljuk Empire controlled a vast area, stretching from western Anatolia and the Levant in the west to the Hindu Kush in the east, and from Central Asia to the Persian Gulf in the south.

The Seljuk empire was founded in 1037 by Tughril (990–1063) and his brother Chaghri (989–1060). From their homelands near the Aral Sea, the Seljuks advanced first into Khorasan and then into mainland Persia, before eventually conquering Baghdad and eastern Anatolia. The Seljuks won the battle of Manzikert in 1071, and then conquered most of the rest of Anatolia, wresting it from the Byzantine Empire. This was one of the impetuses for the First Crusade (1095–1099). The Seljuk empire began to decline in the 1140s, and by 1194 had been supplanted by the Khwarazmian Empire.

Islamic Golden Age

An interesting fact about the Seljuk Empire is that they played a crucial role in shaping the Islamic Golden Age. It happened by promoting Persian culture and administration while maintaining Turkic military traditions. Despite being of Turkic origin, the Seljuks adopted Persian as their official language and supported Persian scholars, poets, and architects. One of their greatest contributions was the expansion of madrasas (Islamic schools), including the famous Nizamiyya schools, which influenced education across the Muslim world. Their rule also set the stage for the rise of the Ottoman Empire centuries later.

Mongol Empire

1206–1368

The Mongol Empire emerged from the unification of several nomadic tribes in the Mongol homeland under the leadership of Genghis Khan (c. 1162–1227), whom a council proclaimed as the ruler of all Mongols in 1206.

Mongol Iran

Under Genghis Khan, the Mongols first conquered northern China and then the eastern Islamic lands. The empire grew rapidly under his rule and that of his descendants, who sent out invading armies in every direction.

After Genghis Khan died in 1227, this golden dynasty passed to his family.

In the 1230s, Genghis Khan’s sons and daughters defeated the Turks of Central Asia and the Russian principalities, then in 1241 they destroyed two European armies. In the 1250s, after 40 years of non-stop wars, the Mongols conquered Iran and the whole Islamic territory as far as Baghdad.

Life in the Mongol Empire was not just war, looting and destruction. When the Mongols conquered a territory, they had nothing to do with their domestic politics and used local rulers to rule. The Mongols allowed religions to flourish as long as their leaders prayed for them.

But it did not last very long; The succession of the great khan was not automatically transferred to the older son, but brothers, uncles and cousins were allowed to lead, while the senior widows served as viceroys for their sons. The empire began to split due to wars over succession, as the grandchildren of Genghis Khan disputed whether the royal line should follow from his son and initial heir Ögedei or from one of his other sons, such as Tolui, Chagatai, or Jochi.

In 1260s, Genghis Khan’s descendants were embroiled in a civil war over inheritance, dividing the territory into four separate empires. Kublai Khan founded the Yuan Kingdom in China, which is known as the golden age of science and culture. The Il-khans came to power in Iran and developed a new Persian architecture and many cultural achievements.

In Central Asia, Chagatai Khanate overthrew leaders such as Timur (also Tamerlane, c. 1336–1405), and his successor, Babur, established the Mughal Empire in India. And in Eastern Europe, the Golden Horde (Altan Orda) ruled for many years.

Although the Mongol empire was in power for a short time, the Mongols left a legacy that is unparalleled to this day.

The Largest Land Empire Ever

An interesting fact about the Mongol Empire is that it created the largest contiguous land empire in history, stretching from China to Eastern Europe at its peak. Despite their reputation for military conquest, the Mongols were also innovators in governance and trade. Under Genghis Khan and his successors, they established the Pax Mongolica (Mongol Peace), which allowed safe trade and travel along the Silk Road, connecting East and West like never before. This led to a massive exchange of goods, technology, and ideas, including gunpowder, paper money, and Persian medical knowledge, which influenced both Europe and Asia for centuries.

Timurid Empire

1370-1507

The Timurid Empire, self-designated as “Gurkani”, was a Persianate Turco-Mongol empire comprising modern-day Iran, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, the southern region of the Caucasus, Iraq, Kuwait, Afghanistan, much of Central Asia, as well as parts of contemporary Russia, India, Pakistan, Syria and Turkey.

The empire was founded by Timur (also known as Tamerlane), a warlord of Turco-Mongol lineage, who established the empire between 1370 and his death in 1405. Timur acquired the title Gurkan, Mongolian term for ‘royal son-in-law’ because of his marriage to a Genghis Khan’s descendant.

Tamerlane and Timurid territory map

Timur was interested in settled lands of ancient Islamic or Indian culture and eventually built his capital at Samarkand (modern Uzbekistan). His rise to power began in Transoxiana. The later Timurids were mere local rulers in Khurasan and Transoxiana. The Timurid period was one of the most glorious periods in Medieval Islamic art in Transoxiana and Persia. He envisioned himself as the great restorer of the Mongol Empire of Genghis Khan, regarded himself as Genghis’s heir. Timur continued vigorous trade relations with Ming China and the Golden Horde. The empire led to the Timurid Renaissance, particularly during the reign of astronomer and mathematician Ulugh Begh. By 1467, the ruling Timurid dynasty, or Timurids, lost most of Persia to the Aq Qoyunlu confederation. But members of the Timurid dynasty continued to rule smaller states, sometimes known as Timurid emirates, in Central Asia and parts of India. In the 16th century, Babur, a Timurid prince from Ferghana (modern Uzbekistan), invaded Kabulistan (modern Afghanistan) and established a small kingdom there. Twenty years later, he used this kingdom as a staging ground to invade India and establish the Mughal Empire.

Safavid Empire

1501-1736

The Safavid Empire, which was founded as a political dynasty in 1501, was the second Great Islamic Empire to form in Persia. It originated as a religious sect, and it acquired the military and political traits of an empire only after 1501. The Safavid Empire also differed from the Ottoman and Mughal Empires because it was an official Shi’ite empire. religious differences led to much hostility between the Safavids and its Sunni rivals. The Safavid Empire was formed in 1501 and ended by the invasion of Afghans in 1722. It forever influenced Persian nationalism.

Safavids (1501–1736), the dynasty that ruled on Iran for almost 200 years, is often considered the beginning point of modern Persian history. Safavid’s achievement to establish the Shiʿism as Iran’s state religion was a major factor in the emergence of a united national consciousness among the various ethnic and linguistic elements of the country. As Shi’ism spread during the 15th century, so did the Shi’ite Sufi orders, and their forces increased. The oldest Shi’ite sufi order at this time was attributed to the Safavid Sufi family, descendants of Sheikh Safi al-Din Ardabili – chief of the Sufi order of Ṣafaviyeh – who gradually established power in Azerbaijan region and the neighboring area. They provided a monarchy-like system until, as we know, they came to the kingdom of Iran at the beginning of the 16th century. Throughout the Iranian history, the emergence of the Safavid dynasty is an important turning point; after centuries of being under control of foreign rule, Iran is once again becoming a powerful and independent state in the Islamic East.

Read: Safavid Empire

Afsharid Dynasty

1736–1796

The Afsharid dynasty was founded by Nader Shah, a powerful military leader of Turkoman origin. He first served under the Safavid rulers but quickly gained control by defeating Afghan invaders and restoring Persian rule. In 1736, he removed the last Safavid king and declared himself “Shah of Iran“.

Nader Shah expanded Iran’s territory more than any ruler since ancient times, conquering parts of India, Central Asia, and the Caucasus. His most famous victory was in India, where he captured Delhi in 1739 and took great treasures, including the Peacock Throne and the Koh-i-Noor diamond. However, as he grew older, Nader became harsh and cruel, raising taxes and punishing those who opposed him. This made him very unpopular, and in 1747, his own soldiers assassinated him, leading to chaos in Iran.

Following Nader Shah’s death, the Afsharid state rapidly disintegrated. His successors were weak and unable to control the vast empire he had built. The empire fragmented as various factions, including Qajar and Zand forces, vied for power. Nader’s grandson, Shahrokh, managed to hold on to parts of Khorasan, ruling from Mashhad, but his reign was largely symbolic, with real power slipping away. By the late 18th century, the Afsharid dynasty had lost most of its influence, and in 1796, Agha Mohammad Khan of the Qajar dynasty decisively ended Afsharid rule by capturing Mashhad and blinding Shahrokh. The downfall of the Afsharids marked the transition from Nader Shah’s military empire to a period of prolonged instability, paving the way for the rise of the Qajar dynasty.

Zand Dynasty

1751–1794

The Zand dynasty was founded by Karim Khan Zand, a general who rose to power after Nader Shah’s death. Unlike other rulers of his time, Karim Khan was not interested in war and expansion. Instead, he focused on bringing peace and prosperity to Iran. He made Shiraz his capital and called himself “Vakil al-Ro‘aya” (Deputy of the People) instead of Shah, showing that he wanted to serve the people rather than just rule over them. During his time, Iran became stable, trade improved, and the arts flourished. However, after Karim Khan’s death in 1779, Iran fell into disorder as different members of the Zand family fought for the throne.

The Zand dynasty weakened due to these internal struggles, while the Qajars became stronger. Karim Khan’s successors were not as capable as he was, and they could not keep the country united. Agha Mohammad Khan, the leader of the Qajars, took advantage of this and launched attacks against the Zands. In 1794, he defeated the last Zand ruler, Lotf Ali Khan, who was brave but lacked the resources to win. Agha Mohammad Khan captured and later killed Lotf Ali Khan, ending the Zand dynasty. After this victory, the Qajars took full control of Iran and moved the capital from Shiraz to Tehran.

Qajars

1789-1925

One of the largest families in the history of Iran was called the Qajar family who ruled Iran for about 150 years. The Qajar dynasty was notorious for its incompetence in Iranian history, and the Iranian economy was declining during this period. Agha Mohammad Khan, as the founder of this dynasty, held his coronation ceremony in 1796 in Tehran.

Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar

Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar (1742 – 1797), was the founder of the Qajar Kingdom of Iran. Originally chieftain of the Qoyunlu branch of the Qajar tribe, Agha Mohammad Khan was enthroned as the king of Iran in 1789, and ruled Iran until 1797. He deposed Lotf Ali Khan of the Zand dynasty in 1794.

Agha Mohammad Khan was a eunuch Monarch, being castrated as a young adult upon his capture by Adel Shah Afshar, and hence was childless. He was assassinated on 17 June 1797, and was succeeded by his nephew, Fath-Ali Shah.

Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar, King of Iran Agha Mohammad Khan (r.1789 – 1797)

Agha Mohammad Shah’s reign is important for the return of a centralized and unified government and for relocating the capital to Tehran, where it still stands today. He is also noted for his cruel and aggressive behavior, particularly during the re-subjugation of Georgia. He sacked the capital Tbilisi, massacred many of its inhabitants, and moved some 15,000 Georgian captives to mainland Iran.

The kings of the Qajar Dynasty were:

Agha Mohammad Khan (1789–1797) – Founder of the dynasty.
Fath Ali Shah (1797–1834) – Lost territories to Russia in wars.
Mohammad Shah (1834–1848) – Faced internal unrest.
Naser al-Din Shah (1848–1896) – Introduced reforms but was assassinated.
Mozaffar al-Din Shah (1896–1907) – Signed the Constitution of 1906.
Mohammad Ali Shah (1907–1909) – Opposed the constitution and was deposed.
Ahmad Shah (1909–1925) – The last Qajar king, overthrown by Reza Shah Pahlavi.

Ahmad Shah Qajar's State visit to England. Prince Albert standing by him Ahmad Shah Qajar and Prince Albert, Duke of York (later King George VI)

In the early 20th century, the Iranian Constitutional Revolution created an elected parliament or Majlis, and sought the establishment of a constitutional monarchy, deposing king Mohammad Ali Shah for his son Ahmad Shah , but many of the constitutional reforms were reversed by an intervention led by the Russian Empire. Qajar Iran’s territorial integrity was further weakened during the Persian campaign of World War I and the invasion by the Ottoman Empire.

The last ruling king of the Qajar dynasty in history of Iran was Ahmad Shah Qajar, reigning from 1909 to 1925. His weak leadership and foreign influence led to political instability, ultimately resulting in his overthrow by Reza Pahlavi’s coup d’état.

Reza Shah took power in 1925 forming Pahlavi Iran.

Pahlavi Dynasty

1925-1979

The Pahlavi Era in the history of Iran witnessed a period of change, advancement, war and political unrest. The rule of the Pahlavi dynasty left a lasting impact on the country’s identity. In the 1900s Reza Khan as a commander of the Iranian Army, which he combined with the post of Minister of War, engineered a coup against the Qajars and took control, paving the way for the establishment of the Pahlavi dynasty. The official formation of this dynasty marked a shift away from Iranian governance structures and signaled a new era of centralized power. Reza Shah Pahlavi (r. 1a925 – 1941) set out to modernize Iran and introduced reforms aimed at updating the economy education system and military. However Reza Shah faced challenges along the way due to resistance from internal conservative forces and some external pressures.

During World War II, the Allied forces became concerned when Reza Shah aligned himself with Nazi Germany. In 1941 British and Soviet troops entered Iran to protect the country and ensure that its oil resources did not end up in the hands of the Axis powers. In light of the invasion and domestic opposition Reza Shah was forced to abdicate on September 16 1941, passing the throne to his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. This decision aimed to address the challenges coming from both, within and, outside the country.

Iran’s geopolitical position during this time led to alliances with countries that shaped its foreign policy. The control and utilization of Iran’s oil resources became a focus, in relations influencing the nations economic path.

Mohammad Reza Shah initially continued his father’s modernization policies. He pursued a pro-Western foreign policy, aligning Iran with the United States and other Western nations during the Cold War.
In 1963, Mohammad Reza Shah unveiled the White Revolution, a series of ambitious reforms aimed at modernizing Iran. The reforms included land redistribution, granting women the right to vote, and measures to industrialize the country. This also included reforms in education, urban planning, and the legal system. However, these changes led to resistance from conservative elements within Iranian society.

In 1970s, the Shah’s regime became increasingly authoritarian, and political opposition was suppressed. The SAVAK, the Shah’s intelligence and security service, was notorious for its role in stifling dissent and human rights abuses.

The 1970s saw growing discontent among various segments of the Iranian population. Opposition movements, including those led by religious figures like Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, gained power. The autocratic rule of the Shah faced opposition from both secular and religious groups, led to the Islamic Revolution of 1979. The Shah fled Iran on January 16, 1979.

Timeline of Iran history

B.C.E.

100,000 Evidence of man habitation in Zagros
8000 Development of settled village in Zagros
5500 The oldest settlements in Sialk, Central lran
4200 Susa is founded in southwestern Persia
3200-2700 Proto-Elamite period
2700 Elamite Kingdom with Susa as capital
2700-1600 Old Elamite period
1500-1100 Middle Elamite period
1100-539 Neo-Elamite periods
1000 birth of Zoroaster, Iranian prophet
708 Deioces founds Median Kingdom in Ecbatana
633 Scythian Invasion of Media
624 Medians defeat and oust the Scythians
558 Cyrus the Great moves the capital to Susa
546 Cyrus invades Lydia
539 Cyrus captures Babylon
539 Cyrus allows exiled Jews return to Jerusalem
529 Death of Cyrus the great
525 Cambyses conquers the conquet of Egypt
521 Death of Cambyses, son of Cyrus
521 Darius ascends the throne
514 Darius invades Scythia, Caucasus
494 Invasion of Greece by Darius
490 Defeat of Persians at the Battle of Marathon
486 Death of Darius I, Accession of Xerxes
484 Xerxes suppresses the revolt in Babylon
479 Battle of Plataea, Greek defeat of the Persians
405 The Persian Empire loses Egypt
404 Accession of Artaxerxes II to the throne
359 Accession of Artaxerxes III
342 Egypt is re-conquered
336 Darius III, ascends to the throne
334 Alexander the Great defeats the Persian army
330 Assassination of Darius III
327-326 Alexander invades India
323 Alexander returns to Babylon, and dies at 33
320 Seleucus I (Nicator) founds the Seleucid Empire
247 Arsaces I (Arashk) founds the Parthian dynasty

C.E.

214-17 Birth of the prophet Mani
224 Establishment of the Sasanians by Ardashir I
241 Accession of Shapur I.
259 Emperor Valerianus is defeated by Shapur I.
274 or 277 Execution of Mani.
363 Julian killed in a war against Persia.
376 Peace established between Rome and Persia.
531 Massacre and suppression of the Mazdakites.
531 Administrative, military, and social reforms.
533 Peace with Byzantium.
570 Conquest of Yemen.
570 Birth of the Prophet Moḥammad.
611-16 Ḵosrow II’s conquest of Syria and Egypt.
622 Moḥammad’s move from Mecca to Medina,
632 Death of Prophet Moḥammad.
632-34 Abu Bakr’s caliphate.
633 Yazdegerd III succeeds to the Persian throne.
636 Persians are defeated by Arabs at Qadesiya.
637 Muslims capture Ctesiphon, the Sasanian capital
637 Arab Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia.
642 Defeat of Persians by Muslims at Nehavand.
651 Murder of Yazdegerd III; end of the Sasanians
656 Murder of Othman; Ali is chosen as caliph.
680 Revolt of Ḥusain b. Ali, the third Shiʿite Imam.
680 Death of Hussein at the battle of Karbala.
749 Abu Moslem’s army attacks the Omayyads.
750 Establishment of the Abbasid dynasty.
755 Murder of Abu Moslem by caliph Manṣur.
813 The pro-Persian Maʾmun is elected caliph.
820 Ṭaher establishes the Taherid dynasty.
833 Death of Maʾmun.
878 Mahdi, the twelfth Shiʿism disappears.
903 Rise of the Samanid dynasty.
925 Death of Abu Bakr Moḥammad Rāzi
935 foundation of the Buyid dynasty
940 Death of Rudaki “father of Persian poetry,”
977 Foundation of Ghaznavid dynasty.
999 Ferdowsi completes the first draft of Šāh-nāma.
1019 or 1025 Death of Persian poet, Ferdowsi
1037 Rise of the Saljuqids.
1037 Death of Avicenna, Persian physician.
1078-87 foundation of Ismailis by Ḥasan Ṣabbaḥ
1132 Death of Omar Khayyam
1157 End of Saljuks, rise of the Ḵharazmshahians
1209 Death of Neẓāmi Ganjavi, prominent poet.
1220 Genghis Khan overthrows the Ḵharazmshah
1221 Death of Farid-al-Din Aṭṭar, mystic poet.
1227 Genghis Khan dies
1258 End of the Abbasid caliphate
1271 Marco Polo journeys through Persia
1273 Death of Jalal-al-Din Rumi, poet
1313-93 Mozaffarid dynasty in Yazd and Fars
1370 Timur becomes head of Ulus Chagatai, and begins to develop Samarkand as his capital
1385-6 Timur conquers western Iran; beginning of conflict with his protégé, Tokhtamysh, whom he had helped become Khan of the Golden Horde.
1393 Timur defeats the Mozaffarids
1397 Timur invades India
1405 Death of Timur
1500-06 Overthrow of the Timurids
1501 Esmaʿil I establishes the Safavid dynasty
1502-24 Esmaʿil I establishes Shiʿite official religion.
1507 Portuguese fleet occupies Hormuz.
1508 Safavid forces capture Iraq.
1514 Chaldoan battle;Selim I defeats Esmaʿil.
1514-20 Ottoman economic boycott of Persia.
1548 Ṭahmasb transfers his capital to Qazvin.
1585 Ottomans invade Persia and occupy Tabriz.
1588 Accession of Abbas I (the Great).
1590 Shah Abbas makes peace with the Ottomans.
1598 Shah Abbas’ victory over the Uzbeks.
1600 Shah Abbas transfers his capital to Isfahan.
1601-03 Shah Abbas occupies Bahrain.
1603 War with Ottomans; Abbas retakes Tabriz.
1603-04 deportation of Armenians to New Julfa.
1622 Persians oust the Portuguese from Hormuz.
1629 Death of Shah Abbas I.
1630 The Ottomans capture Hamadan.
1638 The Ottomans capture Erevan and Tabriz.
1664 First Russian mission sent to Isfahan.
1664 A French trade mission is sent to Persia.
1697-1701 The Safavids control Basra.
1722 The Afghans under Maḥmud invade Isfahan.
1722-30 The Afghans occupy much of Persia.
1723 The Russians occupy Rasht and Baku.
1723 Ottomans occupy Georgia and Hamadan.
1724 Maḥmud captures Shiraz.
1725 The Ottomans occupy Ganja and Tabriz.
1729 Nader defeats Afghans.
1733 Nader ends the Ottoman occupation.
1734 Nader invades the Caucasus,Baku, Erevan.
1736 Nader is proclaimed Shah; end of Safavids.
1738 Nader Shah occupies Qandahar.
1739 Nader invades India.
1740 Nader Shah conquers Bukhara and Ḵiva.
1747 Assassination of Nader Shah.
1758 Karim Khan becomes ruler of Persia.
1779 Karim Khan dies at the age of 80.
1783 The Persians are driven from Bahrain.
1789 Aqa Moḥammad Khan establishes Qajar.
1796 Coronation of Aqa Moḥammad Khan.
1797 Assassination of Aqa Moḥammad Khan.
1810 First Persian students are sent to Europe.
1812 Treaty of friendship between Persia and Britain.
1813 First war with Russia; Abbas Mirza is defeated.
1813 Treaty of Golestan; Persia cedes Georgia.
1826 Second war with Russia; defeat of Persians.
1826 Turkmenchay treaty with Russia.
1836 Rebellion of Aqa Khan against government.
1844 Foundation of Babi movement.
1848 Accession of Nāṣer-al-Din Shah.
1850 Execution of the Bab by order of Amir Kabir.
1850 Amir Kabir is exiled to Kashan.
1851 Inauguration of the Dār-al-Fonun College.
1852 Execution of Amir Kabir iby Naṣer-al-Din Shah.
1852 Massacre of the Babis by Naṣer-al-Din Shah.
1857 Shah recognizes independence of Afghanistan.
1860 Freemasonry is introduced in Persia.
1891 tobacco boycott by Mirzā Ḥasan Shirzi.
1892 Death of Baha Allah, founder of the Bahāis.
1896 Assassination of Nāṣer-al-Din Shah.
1904 Tea plant seed is imported from India.
1906 First formation of a national assembly.
1906 The first Majles opens on October 7.
1908 Excavation of oil at Masjed-e Solayman.
1908 movement of Sattar Khan and Baqer Khan.
1909 Execution of Shaikh Fażl-Allāh Nuri.
1909 Formation of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company..
1915 Movement of Mirza Kuchak Khan in Gilan.
1915 British forces enter Bushehr.
1916 Russian forces occupy Qom and Kashan.
1920 Mirza Kuchak Khan occupies Rasht.
1921 Reza Khan defeats Kuchak Khan.
1921 Founding of the Qom religious center.
1923 Reza Khan assumes the premiership.
1923 Aḥmad Shah leaves for Europe,
1925 Parliament approves the deposing of Aḥmad Shah.
1925 Reza Khan is elected Shah.
1928 Formation of Bank-e Melli (National Bank).
1928 Bandar-e Anzali is renamed Bandar-e Pahlavi.
1930 Political relations established with Japan.
1934 Reza Shah visits Turkey and Kemal Ataturk.
1935 Inauguration of the University of Tehran.
1935 Adoption of Western-style uniform dress
1935 Uprising in the Gowharshad Mosque.
1936 Women are banned from wearing veil (chador).
1939 Prince Moḥammad Reza marries Fawzia.
1939 Iran declares its neutrality in the World War II.
1941 Reza Shah is overthrown
1943 Tehran Conference.
1944 Death of Reza Shah in Johannesburg.
1948 The Shah and Queen Fawzia divorce.
1950 Military agreement between Iran and US.
1951 Shah marries Sorayya Esfandiari.
1951 The Oil Nationalization Law is passed.
1951 Moṣaddeq is named prime minister.
1952 Moḥammad Moṣaddeq resigns.
1953 Dismission of Mosaddegh by Shah.
1957 Formation of SAVAK, Iranian secret police.
1959 The Shah marries Farah Diba.
1960 Inauguration of the Central Bank of Iran.
1962 Inauguration of Iran Air, the national airline.
1962 Formation of the Iran National Car Company.
1964 Ayatollah Khomeini is exiled to Turkey.
1966 National Iranian television begins broadcasting.
1967 Death of Moḥammad Moṣaddeq.
1971 Iran occupies Abu Musa Island.
1971 Celebrations of 2,500th anniversary of foundation of the Persian monarchy
1972 President Richard Nixon visits Iran.
1979 Islamic revolution

Customer

02/03/2025

Wrote: Laurence W
What were the most significant turning points in Iran’s history that shaped its modern identity?

Iransafar Tours
02/03/2025
Reply to: Laurence W
Throughout the history of Iran, several key events shaped Iran’s modern identity:
Arab Conquest (7th century) – Introduced Islam, permanently transforming Persian culture and governance.
Safavid Rise (16th century) – Established Shia Islam as Iran’s dominant faith, distinguishing it from Sunni neighbors.
Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911) – Marked Iran’s first major move toward democracy and a constitutional government.
Pahlavi Modernization (1925–1979) – Rapid modernization and centralization but also rising opposition.
Iranian Revolution (1979) – Overthrew the monarchy and established the Islamic Republic, redefining Iran’s political and religious structure.
Each of these events played a major role in shaping Iran’s national identity, governance, and global interactions.

11/22/2023

cyrus and darius the great always live in our hearts <3

10/12/2022

This was very useful! Thank You 🙂